NATURE, CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION IN THE OIL AND GAS SECTOR

September 18, 2018

NATURE, CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION IN THE OIL AND GAS SECTOR

2.1 Definition of Terms

Environment

To this extent, ‘the Black Law Dictionary’ defines environment as the totality of physical, economic, cultural, aesthetic, and social circumstances and factors which surround and affect the desirability and value of property and which also affect the quality of people’s lives.

The National Environmental Standard and Regulation Enforcement Agency Act, 2007 [1]defines ‘environment’ in the following perspectives; ‘Environment’ include water, air, land, animals living therein and the relationship that exist among these or any of them. Section 20 of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria[2] defines environment as the water, Forest and wildlife, all layers of the atmosphere, all organic and in-organic matter and living organisms, and the interacting nature system that includes the component referred to in paragraphs (a) – (f).

Pollution

Section 37 of the National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (Establishment) Act 2007[3] defines “pollution” thus:

“Pollution means man-made or man aided alteration of chemical, physical or biological quality of the environment beyond acceptable limits and pollutants shall be construed accordingly.”

Environmental pollution in the oil and gas sector refers to the pollution of the environment occasioned through oil and gas production and exploration.

Petroleum

Petroleum came from the Greek word ‘Petra’ that is from rock and also from the Latin word ‘Oleum’ that is oil[4]. Crude oil is a natural liquid that consist of a complex mixture liquid organic compound that are found in geologic formation beneath the earth’s surface

The term “oil” in geological terms therefore refers to petroleum oil and not any other form of oil[5]. Petroleum has also been described as an organic material which occurs naturally in green to black coloured mixtures of hydrocarbon oils found as seepages beneath the earth crust and which could be obtained by boring into the earth crust[6]. Petroleum is formed beneath the earth crust across countries of the world.

Gas

It has been defined as a combustible fluid from fuel or lighting. In a specialized sense, it has been defined as a mixture of the low molecular weight paraffin series hydrocarbons methane, propane, and butane, with small amount of higher hydrocarbons, also frequently containing small or large proportions of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulphide, and occasionally small proportions of helium[7]. It has also been described as natural hydrocarbon oils which are associated with the production of petroleum[8]. Gas as used in this thesis refers to the combustible liquid hydrocarbon either occurring independently or in association with petroleum oil.

2.2 The oil and gas sector in Nigeria

Nigeria is one of the largest oil producing nations in Africa and the eleventh largest producer of crude oil in the world, prospecting and extracting petroleum hydrocarbons in over 50% of the Niger Delta region.[9] The Niger Delta region is located in the south and comprises of nine states. Nigeria with total proven crude oil reserve of 37.1 billion barrels (bb) is among the top 10 countries with the biggest crude oil reserve and has a greater potential for gas[10]. The oil reserves are predominantly in the on-shore Niger Delta, coastal offshore areas and lately in the deep waters. As a developing country, Nigeria operates a concession system of exploration and production with the operating multi-national companies. The Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC), which manages the exploration bidding activities, is the concessionaire while the operating companies are the operators.

Oil production in Nigeria started at Oloibiri in present Bayelsa state in 1956 at a modest rate of 5,100 barrels per day, rising steadily to 415,000 barrels per day in 1966 and to 2.3 million barrels per day in 1979[11]. Nigeria joined OPEC in 1971. As an OPEC member, Nigeria has a sustainable production capacity of 2.25 million barrel per day but supplied a total of 1.92 million barrels per day in 2014[12]. According to NNPC, Nigeria produces only high value, low sulphur content, light crude oils ; mainly Anton Blend, Bonny Light, Bonny Medium, Brass Blend, Escravos Light, Forcados Blend, IMA, Odudu Blend, Pennington Light, Qua-Iboe Light and Ukpokiti[13].

2.3 Causes of Pollution in the Oil and Gas Sector

Environmental pollution has proven to be a menace to the society. The only way environmental pollution can be curbed is by examining the root causes of pollution. This will enable the government to proffer solutions that will mitigate environmental pollution in the society. The various causes of pollution in the oil and gas sector include:

2.3.1 Oil Exploration and Oil Exploitation

Exploration is the process of searching for oil in Nigeria be it in the water, or in the ground. The search for crude oil in Nigeria began as far back as 1908 when a German company, the Nigerian Bitumen Corporation, started exploration in the Araromi area of western Nigeria. The pioneering effort of this company was aborted by the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. Shell Petroleum Development Company continued with oil exploration in the Niger Delta region. The company made its first oil discovery in 1956 at Oloibiri in the Niger Delta region after about half a century of exploration[14]. Nigeria joined the ranks of oil producers in 1958 when the company discovered oil in commercial quantity producing about 5,100 barrels per day[15]. Today, the oil industry is highly visible in the Niger Delta and has control over a large expanse of land. Shell Petroleum Development Corporation operates over 31,000 square kilometres. The area is crisscrossed by thousands of kilometres of pipelines, punctuated by well and flow stations. Much of the oil infrastructure is located close to the homes, farms and water sources of communities in the Niger Delta region. After Shell British Petroleum, which discovered and drilled the oil at Oloibiri, joined the ranks of oil producers in 1958, exploration rights in onshore and offshore areas adjoining the Niger Delta were later extended to other foreign companies such as Mobil, Chevron, Total etc. Further exploration and production activities were hampered between 1967 and 1970 by the Nigerian civil war. Oil exploration has taken place in five major sedimentary basins, namely, the Niger Delta, the Anambra Basin, the Benue Trough, the Chad Basin and the Benin Basin. The most prospective basin is the Niger Delta which includes the continental shelf[16].

Although crude oil is an important national economic mainstay of many nations, being the largest single item in the balance of payments and exchanges between nations, and the major factor in local level politics regarding development, jobs, health, and the environment, the rapid exploitation of petroleum oil and natural gas poses a significant environmental and ecological danger to the immediate environment owing to oil spills, effluent discharge and gas flaring. Oil spillage has become a global menace that has been occurring since the discovery, exploration and exploitation of crude oil, which was part of the industrial revolution. In spite of the obvious economic gains of this industry, crude oil exploration, exploitation, refining and use have had numerous negative impacts and costs to public health, the environment, cultures and heritage.

2.3.2 Pipeline Vandalization

It is also a major cause of environmental degradation in the Niger Delta communities. Pipelines vandalism contributes to the environmental pollution often associated with oil spillage. As the vandals bust oil pipelines, a large quantity of crude oil spills on the land surface and consequently degrades the environment. This ultimately impoverishes the people as it destroys the arable land, vegetation, the bio-diversity as well as aquatic lives which constitute the main sources of the economic survival of the people[17]. Consequently, some people within these communities where oil pipelines criss-crossed engage in criminal act of busting oil pipelines in order to scoop oil for sale for the purpose of economic survival.

Pipeline vandalism has resulted not only in colossal waste of natural resources, but also in human tragedies involving loss of lives. The NNPC Group Managing Director, Dr. Ibex Kachikwu has observed that beyond the loss of crude oil and finished products, the incident of pipeline vandalism and oil theft have also claimed a huge number of human lives. He lamented that over the last three years no fewer than 350 persons, including NNPC workers had been killed as a result of the activities of oil thieves[18].

Pipeline vandalism has worsened the problem of social insecurity in the Niger Delta region. The situation has exposed many oil workers to grave danger. Furthermore, pipeline vandalism and oil theft have resulted in increasing loss of the nation’s revenue which could have accrued from the sale of crude oil on international market.

The following is a list of oil pipeline explosions that led to thousands of people losing their lives and properties worth billions of naira lost[19].

Oct 17, 1998:- In Jesse, a petroleum pipeline exploded and up to 1,500 villagers, most of whom were scavenging gasoline died. This is regarded as the worst of all oil blasts in the country.

July 10, 2010: Another explosion near Jesse town kills about 250 people.

July 16, 2000: 100 villagers in Warri killed when an oil pipeline was vandalized by oil thieves.

November 30, 2000: A leaking pipeline caught fire near the fishing village of Ebute, in Lagos Killing dozens of people and destroying properties.

June 19, 2003: A pipeline punctured by oil thieves exploded and killed 125 villagers near Umiahia, Abia state.

September 17, 2004: Another pipeline vandalized by oil thieves exploded and killed dozens of people in Lagos.

May 12, 2006: A pipeline punctured by oil thieves at Atlas Creek Island in Lagos, exploded and killed 150 people.

December 26, 2006: Another vandalized pipeline exploded in Lagos killed at least 500 people.

May 16, 2008: NNPC Pipeline explosion in Ijegun Lagos state, killing dozens of people and till date, the ijegun people have not been compensated by NNPC. All the well water in the Area has been contaminated without any form of compensation.

July 12, 2012: In a village in Rivers state, 200 people lost their lives when they rushed to collect petrol that had spilled from an oil tanker that had overturned.

June 27, 2013: an explosion at the Atlas core jetty, Apapa, Lagos, killing dozens of people

2.3.3 Pipeline Corrosion

Corrosion is the deterioration of a material (usually metal) and its properties because of its reaction to the environment. It occurs as a result of oxidation (wearing away), and when the metal is in contact with oxygen (from the atmosphere) and water, the resultant oxide coats the metal. Corrosion of pipelines and tanks account for 50 % of all the spills, hence the largest contributor to the total oil spills in Niger Delta. Pipeline corrosion or corrosion of pipes and tanks is the rupturing or leaking of production infrastructures that are described as very old and lack regular inspection and maintenance[20]. Most pipelines from the flow stations are obsolete. By international standards, oil pipes ought to be replaced after 15 to 20 years, but most pipelines in use are 20 to 25 years old, making them subject to corrosion and leakage[21]. Some of these pipes are laid above ground level without adequate surveillance, exposing them to wear and tear and other dangers.

2.3.4 Oil Bunkering

Illegal bunkering is any activity relating to the theft or sabotage of crude oil, facilities or installations in form of pipeline vandalism, fuel scooping, illegal refining, etc. Illegal bunkering is the most commonly known form of oil theft and it involves direct tapping of oil. The process of breaking, vandalising and tapping oil from oil installations may lead to the damage of oil pipelines; it causes many leaks that cause immense environmental degradation. Oil theft activities and pipeline vandalism in the Niger Delta compounds oil spillages from other sources and exacerbates the problem of environmental degradation and pollution of water-ways[22]. Vandalism is responsible for a large percentage of oil spills. Oil spills result in ground water poisoning, destruction of agricultural land, fishery and livestock and fast disappearing mangrove forests. There are complaints of oil contamination of boreholes which makes the water undrinkable in the region. This makes the water undrinkable even after some treatment. Also, some native have been known to use or drink polluted water out of frustration and the negative effects cannot be over emphasized

In fact, farmland, fish ponds, rivers, etc., have been destroyed and rendered unviable for agriculture, fisheries and aquaculture. Thus, thousands of household and families of the Niger Delta have been impoverished, or have become securely locked into poverty as a result of this scale of environmental devastation. This problem has left many Niger Delta communities further impoverished since their means of livelihood, fishing and farming, have been ruined by constant spills and leakages.

2.3.5 Transportation of Oil

Accident is a source of environmental pollution at all stages of oil and gas production. The most typical cause of accidents includes equipment failure, personnel mistakes and extreme natural impacts. Accidents also occur in the cause of transportation of petroleum products. Oil extracted on the continental shelf is transported by tanker to the onshore terminals. When accident occurs it leads to large oil spill. As stated above, many volumes of oil is usually spilled on the environment. For example between 1989 and 1990, about 114,000 and 45,000 tons of oil were officially reported to have been spilt on the environment in Nigeria[23]. It is also reported that the total volume of oil pollution caused by marine oil transportation was 500,000 tons a year through accident[24].

In some cases, tanker accidents occurred right in the zone of the oil field development. For example, one of such incident happened in the Shetland basin some years ago. A tanker called ESSO Bernica was involved in an accident about 1,100 tons of heavy oil fuel was reported to have spilled into the coastal zone causing serious damage to nature and the local population[25]. Very dangerous situation can emerge in case of gas tanker accident. Gas tanker accidents, although less probable than the accidents with oil tankers, it can cause accidents, although less probable than the accidents with oil tankers, it can cause flame less explosions. This happens as a result of rapid evaporation of the liquefied gas on the sea surface and formation of pieces of ice and gas clouds followed by combustion and explosions. A typical example of tanker accidents is the oil spillage that occurred at the Otedola Bridge in 2018 which claimed lives.[26].

2.3.6 Gas Flaring

Gas flaring is another cause of pollution in the oil and gas industry. Gas flaring involves the complex and unscientific burning and emitting of excess and unwanted gas gathered in an oil field production flow station sites into wastes. In the process of production of oil, the excess and unutilized quantities of gas are separated from the crude and rather than being stored for other useful purposes like generation of electricity, domestic use and even for the export market, are burnt away[27]. In both cases, it is the environment that is left degraded as dangerous toxic substances pollute the air through gas flaring; at the same time rivers, streams and lakes are rendered lifeless through the discharge of waste products and other effluents[28]. It contributes enormously to the degradation of the environment, and has become a catalyst to global warming.

Gas flare emits a mixture of benzene and other toxic substances that are harmful to humans and the entire physical environment. Acid rain, fallout of gas flare acidifies lakes, rivers and streams and damages vegetation[29]. It also accelerates the decay of the roofing sheets and other building materials. It has been stated time and time again by Plaintiffs in suits involving gas flaring that it is a process that seriously pollutes the air, causes respiratory diseases and generally endangers and impairs their health. In particular the Plaintiff in the case of Gbemre v Shell Petroleum Development Co Nig. Ltd & Ors[30] stated that the burning of gas by flaring in their community gives rise to the following:

(a) Poisons and pollutes the environment as it leads to the emission of carbon dioxide and other cocktail of toxins that affect the health, lives and livelihood.

(b) Exposes them to an increased risk of premature death, respiratory illness, asthma and cancer.

(d)Causes painful breathing, chronic bronchitis, decreased lung function and death.

(e) Reduces crop production and adversely impacts on their food security.

(f) Causes acid rain, their corrugated house roofs are corroded by the composition of the rain that falls as a result of gas flaring. Acidic rain consequently acidifies their lakes and streams and damages their vegetation.

(g) That so many natives of the community have died and countless others are suffering various sicknesses occasioned by the effects of gas flaring. Pursuant to the above averments, Plaintiffs claimed that the constitutional guarantee of right to life and dignity of human person enshrined in Sections 33 & 34 of the 1999 Constitution respectively, and available to them as citizens of Nigeria, includes the right to clean, poison-free and pollution free air and healthy environment conducive for human beings to reside in for their development. The Federal High Court that heard the matter agreed with the Plaintiffs and granted their prayers and reliefs.

The flaring of gas during oil production in the oil fields, contributes to the pollution of the environment. The extent of this man-made alteration in the quality of the environment is not limited to the atmosphere, but also affects land resources, water resources, residential buildings etc. The process has also been identified as a major contributor to global warming.[31]

2.4 Effects of such Pollution.

Oil spills pose a major threat to the environment in Nigeria. If not checked or effectively managed, they could lead to total destruction of the ecosystem, especially in the Niger Delta where oil spills have become prevalent. The effects of environmental pollution caused by the oil and gas companies include:

2.4.1 Marine Pollution

Water, an essential factor in environmental sustenance, can be polluted through various means. Oil operations contribute greatly to the pollution of water resources when oil products and other pollutants are discharged into the ocean, rivers, streams and lakes. When this happens, the marine is severely affected often leading to the death of aquatic life. In other words, fish and other varieties and species of animals found in the marine environment are either killed or chased into deep waters. Oil kills plants and animals in the estuarine zone. Oil settles on beaches and kills organisms that live there; it also settles on ocean floor and kills benthic (bottom-dwelling) organisms such as crabs. Oil poisons algae, disrupts major food chains and decreases the yield of edible crustaceans. Oil endangers fish hatcheries in coastal waters and as well contaminates the flesh of commercially valuable fish. In a bid to clean oil spills by the use of oil dispersants, serious toxic effects will be exerted on plankton thereby poisoning marine animals. This can further lead to food poisoning and loss of lives

Marine pollution can occur through the deposit or dumping of oil operations waste like mud, sand or silt[32]. In the same vein, oil operations resulting in oil spill can cause pollution of the rivers and streams, by rendering them stagnant. Oil pollution of rivers, lakes and streams in the Niger Delta has had damaging effects on fishermen. Although the Funiwa-5 oil well blow-out occurred about a decade ago, it is being included in this study because it was the largest incidence of oil pollution in Nigeria. On 17 January 1980 at about 1:00 p.m., the Funiwa-5 oil well located in the Funiwa field which is 5,000 km offshore the Niger Delta, blew out as a result of equipment failure[33]. This field is a joint venture by three oil companies - the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation, Chevron Oil Company (Nigeria) and Texaco Overseas (Nigeria) Petroleum Company. The field was operated by the latter company after obtaining a licence to operate from the Government. The blow-out which lasted for about twelve and a half days, after which the well caught fire for two days, caused a lot of damage to the people and the environment. The effect of the blow-out was devastating, as large quantities of oil were discharged from the oil well into the sea and carried to the land by the waves. About five villages were affected. The creeks in these villages which serve as roads became almost impassable due to the oil pollution. Also, fish, crabs, oysters and winkles in the water were killed or tainted by oil. And a total of roughly 836 acres of mangrove forest was destroyed[34].

Marine pollution is largely responsible for the incidence of water-borne disease such as typhoid, cholera, bacillary, dysentery, river blindness and guinea worm infection. Offshore oil exploration has cause consideration pollution of water in the region in the loss of liquid plants and animals and the contamination of water bodies.

2.4.2 Land Contamination

Oil spillage through petroleum production has changed the character of the land in the Niger Delta polluting it to the detriment of living organisms. Such spillage is responsible for the destruction of crops, farms, vegetation and wildlife, it also impairs human wealth. Oil is a complex and variable natural substance which is capable of contaminating plants, damaging the natural landscapes and habitat and leading to soil degradation[35]. In the Nigerian Coastal environment a large areas of the mangrove ecosystem have been destroyed. The mangrove was once a source of both fuel woods for the indigenous people and a habitat for the area's biodiversity, but is now unable to survive the oil toxicity of its habitat.

2.4.3 Global Warming/ Climate Change

Global warming is also referred to as climate change. Gas flaring contributes to climate change resulting in deleterious effects to the environment. The emission of carbon dioxide, burning of fossil fuel, mainly coal, oil and gas have led to global warming with more serious implications for developing countries, especially Africa which is highly vulnerable with limited ability to adapt. Climate change is caused by the emission of a variety of harmful gases into the atmosphere thereby altering its natural state and posing danger to the environment. In the oil industry, the continued flaring of associated gas has contributed immensely to the pollution of our atmosphere. This is as a result of the emission of deadly substances like methane and benzene which pose various health hazards to the host communities and climate change.

2.4.5 Health Implications

Major oil spills affect human health and well-being, an important tenet of environmental sustainability. Oil contains a lot of particulate matter, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulphide, acidic aerosols, and volatile organic compounds which are detrimental to human health. Gas flare emits a mixture of benzene and other toxic substances that are harmful to humans and the entire physical environment. These particles have been noted to be harmful to the heart and lungs[36]. Volatile organic compounds can lead to respiratory problems. Gastro-intestinal symptoms, allergic reaction and generalized discomfort have also been reported as consequences of oil spillage. Oil vapours have been noted to cause headaches, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, eye and throat irritations, as well as breathing difficulties[37]. People who inhale large amounts of fumes are in danger of chemical poisoning called hydrocarbon pneumonia. A retrospective cohorts study in England, after water contaminated incident near Worcester in April 1994, reported diarrhoea, nausea, headache, abdominal pains, skin irritations and itchy eyes at higher rates among the exposed subjects when compared with the unexposed[38]. In essence, the health risks associated with oil spillage are real and require urgent attention. Indeed, conditions like post-traumatic stress disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder; somato-form stress disorder, hypochondriasis and affective stress disorders are better avoided than managed, by preventing spillage and if need be, immediately curtailing the spread of any accidental spills.

Residents of oil-producing areas at times have to cope with drinking water that contains residual oil even many years after clean-up.[39] There is also the lasting health effects of chemical dispersants used during clean-up. For example, many residents of the Niger Delta have complained of asthma, breathing difficulties and pain, headaches, nausea, and throat irritation as well as chronic bronchitis. Gas flaring has also been held to be a violation of the fundamental right to an healthy environment and the dignity of human persons in the Nigerian case of Jonah Gbemre v. Shell[40].

The emphasis of environment health has been the promotion, protection and sustenance of the health of people, as it relates to environmental conditions. Oil spills are therefore harmful to human health in a multiplicity of ways.

[1] Cap F10 Laws of the Federation of Nigeria 2004

[2] Cap. C23, Laws of the Federation of Nigeria. 2004

[3] Supra note 1

[4] School Science, ‘What does petroleum mean? – School Science’, available at http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/exxonmobil/knowl_old/2/petroleum.html {accessed 14 August 2018}

[5]Serra, Richard, ‘Dictionary of Geology’, (New Delhi: Academic Publishers, 2006) p.249.

[6] M.P.M. Walker (ed) Chambers Dictionary of Science and Technology (New York: Chambers Harraps Publishers Ltd, 2002) p806.

[7] R.H. Johnson and L.G. Huntley, ‘Principles of Oil and Gas Production, 1^st.edn (John Wiley & Son Publishers, 1916) page 2.

[8] ibid

[9] J. William Carpenter, ‘The Biggest Oil Producers in Africa | Investopedia’ available at https://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/101515/biggest-oil-producers-africa.asp [accessed August 13 2018].

[10] Ibid.

[11] Yinka Omoregbe, Oil and Gas Law in Nigeria (Malthouse Press Limited, Lagos, 2001) page 84.

[12] Ibid.

[13] Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation, ‘Oil Production’ available at http://www.nnpcgroup.com/nnpcbusiness/upstreamventures/oilproduction.aspx [accessed 10 August 2018].

[14] Yinka Omoregbe Oil and Gas Law in Nigeria(Malt house Press Limited, Lagos, 2001) page 84.

[15] Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation, ‘History of Nigerian Petroleum Industry’ available at http://www.nnpcgroup.com/NNPCBusiness/Businessinformation/OilGasinNigeria/IndustryHistory.aspx [accessed August 14 2018].

[16] Gbadegesin, A., The Impacts of Oil Exploration and Petroleum Activities on the Environment: Implications/or Peasant Agriculture, Ibadan: Macmillan Press, 2008, page 66.

[17] Fekumo, F, ‘Civil Liability for Damages caused by Oil Pollution in Omotola J.A. (ed) Environmental Laws in Nigeria, (University of Lagos press, 1990), pp. 231-284.

[18]Business Editor, ‘Nigeria Loses N8.6trn in 4 Years To Pipeline Vandalism’ available at

https://www.herald.ng/nigeria-loses-n8-6trn-in-4-years-to-pipeline-vandalism-report/ [ accessed 16 august 2018].

[19] Efeng, L.A. The Nigeria State, Oil Exploration and Community interest: Issues and Perspectives, (Port Harcourt University Press, 1997), page 122.

[20] Adindu.C, Iyasara, Oduagwu Ferdinand Azubuike, Okeahialam Solomon, ‘Management Of Oil Spills Due To Pipeline corrosion in the Niger Delta Region’ available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306356390_MANAGEMENT_OF_OIL_SPILLS_DUE_TO_PIPELINE_CORROSION_IN_THE_NIGER_DELTA_REGION_OF_NIGERIA [accessed Aug 12 2018].

[21]O.O Udofia and O.F. Joel, ‘Pipeline Vandalism in Nigeria: Recommended Best Practice of Checking the Menace’ available at https://www.onepetro.org/conference-paper/SPE-162980-MS [accessed 16 August 2018]

[22] Duru, A. E, ‘Addressing oil theft, illegal bunkering in Niger Delta’ available at http://www.dailyindependent.com/2013/11 [Accessed August 16, 2018]

[23]Stanislav Patin ‘Accidents during the Offshore Oil and Gas Development’, available at ‘http://www.offshore-environment.com/accidents.html’ [accessed 12 August 2018]

[24] ibid

[25] Peter Foxton and Martin Heubeck, ‘ Response to Esso Bernica Oil Spills’ available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231756284_Response_to_the_Esso_Bernicia_oil_spills[ accessed August 16 2018]

[26] Ifreke Inyang, ‘Otedola Bridge Fire: Lagos Government reveals cause Of Explosion, announces restriction for tankers’ available at Http://Dailypost.Ng/2018/07/01/Otedola-Bridge-Fire-Lagos-Govt-Reveals-Cause-Explosion-Announces-Restriction-Tankers/ [ accessed August 16 2018].

[27] Anslem O. Ajugwo, ‘Negative Effects of Gas Flaring ; The Nigerian Experience’ Journal of Environment Pollution and Human Health (2013),pp 6-8. available at Http://Pubs.Sciepub.Com/Jephh/1/1/2/[ Accessed August 16 2018].

[28] Akpomuvie, ‘Strategy of Commons: Analysis of Oil Spillage, Gas Flaring And Sustainable

Development of the Niger Delta Of Nigeria’ (2011) vol 12, Journal of Sustainable Development.

[29]Emma Amaize and Chioma Onuegbu, ‘Gas Flare, Acid Rain still haunt Niger Delta’ available at Https://Www.Vanguardngr.Com/2018/04/Gas-Flare-Acid-Rain-Still-Haunt-Niger-Delta/[ Accessed August 16 2018]

[30] (2005) A.H.R.L.R 151

[31] Lawrence Atsegbua, Oil and Gas Law in Nigeria, Theory and Practice, 2^nd edn. ( New Era Publications, Benin,2004) p124

[32] Elf (Nig) Ltd v Sillo (1994) 6 NWLR (Pt 350) 258

[33] Omoboaji Adewale, ‘Oil Spills Claims in Nigeria: Principles, Guidelines, and Criteria’, (1989) Vol 33, Journal of African Law, pp,99-104

[34] Ibid

[35] ibid

[36] Best Ordinioha and Seiyefa Brisibe, ‘The human health implications of crude oil spills in the Niger Delta, Nigeria: An interpretation of published studies’ available at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3644738/ [accessed August 16 2018]

[37] Albert Salako, Oluwafolahan Sholeye and Sunkanmi Ayankoya, ‘Oil Spills And Community Health: Implications For Resource Limited Settings’, Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health Sciences, 2012,Vol. 4(9), Pp. 145-150.

[38] ibid

[39] ibid

[40] Supra note 30

CHAPTER TWO

NATURE, CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION IN THE OIL AND GAS SECTOR